Used Household Batteries | US EPA

Find information about the types of batteries used in households and how to manage them when they are no longer needed.

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Certain batteries should NOT go in household garbage or recycling bins. This page can inform you on how to manage these batteries safely. Waste batteries can always be recycled or taken to household hazardous waste collection points.

To prevent fires from lithium-ion batteries, tape battery terminals and/or place batteries in separate plastic bags and never put these batteries in household garbage or recycling bins.
 

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Every year in the United States, millions of single use and rechargeable batteries are bought, used and recycled or disposed of in the trash. Batteries come in various chemistries, types and sizes to fit their use.

• Single-use batteries can generally be removed from the device when they stop powering the device.
• Rechargeable batteries may be removable or permanently attached to the device.

The increased demand for batteries can be traced largely to the rapid increase in use of small portable electronics, power tools, and other everyday items, as well as the increase in &#;smart&#; products, such as small and large appliances and automobiles.

Used Lithium-Ion Batteries

Learn more about these batteries and their proper management.

Batteries are manufactured using different mixtures of chemical elements designed to meet customers&#; power and performance needs. Batteries can contain metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium, nickel and silver, which can pose a threat to human health or the environment when improperly managed at the end of their service life. Battery types are identified by marking and labeling, not by the battery&#;s shape or the color of the label.

Some batteries may also contain materials such as cobalt, lithium and graphite that are considered critical minerals by the United States Geological Survey. Critical minerals are raw materials that are economically and strategically important to the United States and have a high supply risk potential and for which there are no easy substitutes. Consequently, every effort should be made to recycle and recover these materials to ensure they will be available for generations to come.

Learn about infrastructure investments to improve the nation&#;s battery recycling programs. 

Once a battery is no longer useful, the type and chemistry of the battery determines which of the various waste management options to use. It is important to manage batteries correctly according to their type because some batteries can cause a risk to safety and health if mismanaged at the end of their lives. Batteries can have enough energy to injure or start fires even when used and when they appear to be discharged. For safety, remember that not all batteries are removable or serviceable by the user&#;heed battery and product markings regarding safety and use for all types of batteries.

Single-Use Batteries

Type Uses and Description Disposal

Alkaline and Zinc-Carbon

• These common everyday batteries can be used in products such as alarm clocks, calculators, flashlights, TV remote controls, radios, remote-control products, children&#;s toys and other items.
• For example, some common alkaline and zinc-carbon batteries include 9 Volt, AA, AAA, C, D and some button cells.

Some reclamation companies recycle these batteries; check with your local or state solid waste authority for management options. In most communities, alkaline and zinc carbon batteries can be safely put in your household trash.

EPA recommendation: send used alkaline and zinc carbon batteries to battery recyclers or check with your local or state solid waste authority.

Button-Cell or Coin

• These small, round batteries have historically contained silver, cadmium, mercury or other heavy metals as their main component.
• Today, the majority are made of lithium metal. These batteries are commonly used in products such as watches, hearing aids, car keyless entry remotes, medical devices and calculators.

Button-cell or coin batteries can be a potential swallowing hazard; store them out of the reach of young children.

Management requirements are based on the battery&#;s chemistry. They can be brought to specialized battery recyclers, participating retailers that provide battery takeback services or local household hazardous waste collection programs. Contact the manufacturer or local solid waste authority for additional management options.

Handling precautions: Place each battery in separate plastic bags or place non-conductive tape (e.g., electrical tape) over the battery&#;s terminals or around the entire button. A lithium battery may spark and cause fires if damaged or the terminal ends touch. If the battery becomes damaged, contact the manufacturer for specific handling information.

EPA recommendation: Check for the word &#;lithium&#; marked on the battery. Do not put button-cell, coin, or lithium single use batteries in the trash or municipal recycling bins. Find a recycling location near you:

• Lithium single-use
• Button-cell or coin

Lithium Single-Use

• These common batteries are made with lithium (Li) metal and are single-use and non-rechargeable
• They are used in products such as cameras, watches, remote controls, handheld games and smoke detectors.
• These batteries may be difficult to distinguish from common alkaline batteries, but may also have specialized shapes for specific equipment, such as some types of cameras and calculators.

Rechargeable Batteries

Type Uses and Description Disposal

Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cd)

• These batteries are typically used in cordless power tools, cordless phones, digital and video cameras, two-way radios, bio-medical equipment and video cameras.
• They may look like single-use AA, AAA or other alkaline batteries or a battery pack shaped for specific tools.

Removable batteries: Removable rechargeable batteries can be brought to specialized battery recyclers, participating retailers that provide battery takeback services, or local household hazardous waste collection programs. Contact the manufacturer or your local household waste authority for other management options.

Non-removable batteries contained in electronic devices: Entire devices can be brought to certified electronics recyclers, participating retailers that provide electronics takeback services, or local electronics or household hazardous waste collection programs.

Handling precautions: Place each battery in a separate plastic bag or place non-conductive tape (e.g., electrical tape) over the battery&#;s terminals. Handle any damaged battery with care and appropriate personal protective equipment. If a lithium-ion battery becomes damaged, contact the battery or device manufacturer for specific handling information.

EPA recommendation: Look for labels identifying battery chemistry. Do not put rechargeable batteries in the trash or municipal recycling bins. Find a recycling location near you:

• Ni-Cd
• Li-ion
• Ni-MH
• Ni-Zn
• Pb

Lithium-Ion (Li-ion)

• Commonly found in cellphones, power tools, digital cameras, laptops, children&#;s toys, e-cigarettes, small and large appliances, tablets and e-readers.
• Some Li-ion batteries are not easily removed from the product and can become problematic as a fire hazard if they are broken, bent or crushed.

Nickel Metal Hydride (Ni-MH)

• Commonly found in cellphones, cordless power tools, digital cameras and two-way radios.
• These batteries are not as common as they once were.

Nickel-Zinc (Ni-Zn)

• Commonly found in digital cameras, wireless keyboards and small electronics.

Small-Sealed Lead Acid (Pb)

• Commonly found in mobility scooters, children&#;s toy cars, emergency lighting and hospital equipment. Also used for backup power in residential landline phones and uninterruptable power supplies for computers.

Automotive Batteries

There are several types and applications of batteries used in vehicles today. There are automotive starting batteries used with internal combustion engines, large electric vehicle battery packs that power the vehicle and small batteries that power accessories such as remote door locks or back up the computer&#;s memory.

Type Uses and Description Disposal Lead-Acid

• Lead-acid batteries may contain up to 18 pounds of lead and about one gallon of corrosive lead-contaminated sulfuric acid.
• They can be used as either an engine starting battery or automotive power battery that moves the vehicle.
• They can be found in automobiles, boats, snowmobiles, motorcycles, golf carts, all-terrain vehicles, wheelchairs, and other large transportation vehicles.
• They may also be used in non-automotive situations such as backup power in basement sump-pumps or as uninterruptible power supplies for computers or other critical equipment.

Return to the battery retailer or your local solid or household hazardous waste collection program.

Handling precaution: Contains sulfuric acid and lead. When handling the battery, follow all warnings and instructions on the battery.

EPA recommendation: Return lead-acid batteries to a battery retailer or local household hazardous waste collection program; do not put lead-acid batteries in the trash or municipal recycling bins.

Medium and Large-Scale Li-ion

• Most of today&#;s plug-in and hybrid electric vehicles and energy storage (on and off-grid) use Li-ion batteries to either store power for the hybrid system or to power the electric motor that moves the vehicle.
• These batteries are also used for energy storage systems that can be installed in buildings.

Because of the size and complexity of these battery systems, medium and large-scale Li-ion batteries may not be able to be removed by the consumer. Refer to the manufacturer&#;s instructions and heed warnings and safety instructions.

• Automobile: Contact the automobile dealer, shop or salvage yard where the battery was purchased.
• Energy Storage: Contact the energy storage equipment manufacturer or company that installed the battery.

EPA recommendation: Contact the manufacturer, automobile dealer or company that installed the Li-ion battery for management options; do not put in the trash or municipal recycling bins.

Federal Battery Laws

• Public Law 104-142: The Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act: This law was enacted to phase out the use of mercury-containing batteries and provide for the recycling of nickel cadmium, small sealed lead-acid batteries, and certain other rechargeable batteries.

State Battery Recycling Laws

Some states have enacted battery recycling laws for various types of consumer batteries. To see a map of state battery laws, go to the Call2Recycle website.

 

 

Lead- and cadmium-based batteries pose the largest environmental concerns, so much so that nickel-cadmium was banned in Europe in . Attempts are being made to also ban the lead-based battery, but no suitable replacement is available as was the case by substituting nickel-cadmium with nickel-metal-hydride. For the first time, lithium-ion has been added to the list of pollutants. This chemistry was classified as only mildly toxic, but their sheer volume requires tighter scrutiny.

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Lead acid paved the way to the success of recycling, and today more than 97 percent of these batteries are recycled in the USA. The automotive industry should be given credit for having organized recycling early; however, business reasons rather than environmental concerns may have been the driving force. The recycling process is simple and 70 percent of the battery&#;s weight is reusable lead.

Over 50 percent of the lead supply comes from recycled batteries. Other battery types are not as economical to recycle and are not being returned as readily as lead acid. Several organizations are working on programs to make the collection of all batteries convenient. Only 20 to 40 percent of batteries in mobile phones and other consumer products are currently recycled. The goal of recycling is to prevent hazardous materials from entering landfills and to utilize the retrieved materials in the fabrication of new products.

Spent batteries should be removed from the household. Old primary cells are known to leak and cause damage to the surrounding area. Do not store old lead acid batteries where children play. Simply touching the lead poles can be harmful. Also, keep button cells hidden from small children as they can swallow these batteries. (See BU-703: Health Concerns with Batteries)

Even though environmentally unfriendly, lead acid batteries continue to hold a strong market niche, especially as a starter battery. Wheeled mobility and UPS systems could not run as economically if it were not for this reliable battery. NiCd also continues to hold a critical position among rechargeable batteries as large flooded NiCds start jet airplanes and propel sightseeing boats in rivers of larger cities. Although pollution-free, these batteries are in decline.

Batteries with toxic substances will continue to be with us and there is nothing wrong in using them as long as they are being disposed of properly. Each battery chemistry has its own recycling procedure and the process begins by sorting the batteries into the correct categories.

Lead Acid: Recycling of lead acid began with the introduction of the starter battery in . The process is simple and cost-effective as lead is easy to extract and can be reused multiple times. This led to many profitable businesses and the recycling of other batteries.

Figure 1: Lead acid are the most recycled batteries. Recycling is profitable [1]

In late , smelters started to report an increased number of Li-ion batteries being mixed in with lead acid, especially in starter batteries. This can cause fires, leading to explosion and personal injury. The physical appearance of lead acid and Li-ion packs are similar and sorting at high volume poses a challenge. For consumers, a battery is a battery and folks are enticed to recycle all batteries, never mind the chemistry. As more lead acid are being replaced with Li-ion, the problem will only escalate. From &#;, there has been a 10-fold increase in reported incidents of infiltration of Li-ion with lead acid.

Please note that Li-ion is more volatile when stripped than lead acid. Presorting is done for safety reasons and not to separate hazardous material. Lead acid is benign but toxic, Li-ion is non-malignant but explosive.

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) initiate action through increased awareness, employee training, battery identification and labeling. X-ray technologies to separate batteries are being explored and &#;who carries the liability?&#; is being asked. Battery manufacturers put the responsibility on the recyclers who in turn argue that the burden and sustainability of a product must be borne by the manufacturer. The courts may become the arbitrators.

Nickel-cadmium: When NiCd batteries are disposed of carelessly, the metallic cell cylinder eventually corrode in the landfill. Cadmium dissolves and seeps into the water supply. Once contamination begins, authorities are helpless to stop the carnage. Our oceans already show traces of cadmium (along with aspirin, penicillin and antidepressants) but scientists are not certain of its origin.

Nickel-metal-hydride: Nickel and the electrolyte in NiMH are semi-toxic. If no disposal service is available in an area, individual NiMH batteries can be discarded with other household waste in small quantities; however, with 10 or more batteries, the user should consider disposal them in a secure waste landfill. The better alternative is taking the spent batteries to a neighborhood drop-off bin for recycling.

Primary Lithium: These batteries contain metallic lithium that reacts violently when in contact with moisture and must be disposed of appropriately. If thrown in a landfill in a charged state, heavy equipment operating on top could crush the cases and the exposed lithium could ignite a fire. Landfill fires are difficult to extinguish and can burn for years underground. Before recycling, apply a full discharge to consume the lithium content. Primary lithium batteries (lithium-metal) are used in military combat, as well as in watches, sensors, hearing aids and memory backup. A lithium-metal variety also serves as alkaline replacement in AAA, AA and 9V formats. Li-ion for mobile phones and laptops do not contain metallic lithium. (See also BU-106: Advantages of Primary Batteries)

Lithium-ion: Li-ion is reasonably harmless but spent packs should be disposed of properly. This is done less to retrieve valuable metals, as is the case with lead acid, than for environmental reasons, especially with the growing volume used in consumer products. Li-ion contains harmful elements that are at the toxicity level of electronic devices.

With the increasing use of Li-ion, the European Commission report named &#;Towards the Battery of the future&#; delivers warnings because of the large number of batteries that will meet end-of-life. In Europe, Li-ion cannot be landfilled because of toxicity and danger of explosion, nor can they be incinerated as the ashes are also toxic in landfill. Of concern is cobalt and agents that bind electrode materials together.

The report no longer brands lead acid as the most toxic battery. Lead acid is the only battery that can be recycled profitably. With almost 100% of lead acid being recycled, the focus shifts to Li-ion because of growing volume and value of retrievable materials.

According to an ATZ report (), the 33kWh Li-ion traction battery of the BMW i3 electric vehicle contains 2kg (4.4 lb) cobalt, 6kg (13 lb) lithium, 12kg (26 lb) manganese, 12kg (26 lb) nickel and 35kg (77 lb) graphite. Not all retrieved materials may reach battery-grade quality when recycled but the gained resources can be used for less demanding purposes. Lithium is also used as a lubricant.

Progress is being made and Duesenfeld GmbH demonstrates an innovative method that uses 70% less energy to recycle lithium-ion batteries that with traditional smelting furnaces. Figure 2 illustrates the recycling plant for electric vehicle batteries in Germany.

Figure 2: Recycling plant for electric vehicle batteries in Germany [2]

The recycling process of Li-ion batteries normally begins with deactivation involving a full discharge to remove the stored energy and prevent a surprise thermal event. The electrolyte can also be frozen to prevent electrochemical reactions during the crushing process. Duesenfeld patented a process that evaporates and recovers the organic solvents of the electrolyte in a vacuum by condensation. This process is said to not produce toxic exhaust gases. In Figure 3, technicians disassemble EV batteries for recycling.

Figure 3: Recycling of a lithium-ion EV battery in a container [2]

The following steps are divided into mechanical, pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical treatments. Mechanical involves crushing the battery cells; pyrometallurgical extracts the metals by thermal treatment; and hydrometallurgy involves aqueous processes.

Once disassembled, sorting separates copper foil, aluminum foil, separator and the coating materials. Nickel, cobalt and copper can be recycled from the cast, but lithium and aluminum remain in the slag. A hydrometallurgical process is necessary to recover lithium. This includes leaching, extraction, crystallization, and precipitation from a liquid solution. Hydrometallurgical treatment is used to recover pure metals, e.g. lithium, gleaned from separated coating materials after mechanical processes or from slag in pyrometallurgical processes.

Umicore in Belgium uses a furnace to melt the batteries directly to recover 95% of cobalt, nickel and copper. After the furnace, Umicore uses a special gas washing process to clean the toxic incineration products from the fluorine containing exhaust gases.

To reduce the dangers of fire incidents during the recycling process, smaller recyclers incinerate lithium-ion batteries externally in special waste treatment facilities before doing mechanical separation.

Duesenfeld in Germany discharges the batteries, crushes them in inert atmosphere, evaporates and re-condenses the organic solvents of the electrolyte and separates the electrode coating material from the rest. The metals are then leached from the former active materials. The graphite is filtered and regained, after which lithium-carbonate, nickel-sulfate, cobalt-sulfate and manganese-sulfate are produced. This recycling process yields more metals than with the Umicore thermal method. The CO2 footprint is also reduced while saving energy and lowering the formation of hazardous gases.

Figure 4: Recycled graphite from lithium-ion batteries [2]Figure 5: Recycled lithium-carbonate from lithium-ion batteries [2]

Alkaline: After lowering the mercury content in alkaline batteries in , many territories now allow disposing these batteries as regular domestic trash; however, California considers all batteries hazardous waste. In Europe, lead acid, NiCd, mercury containing batteries, unsorted collections of multiple battery types, and battery electrolytes are considered hazardous waste. All others can pass as non-hazardous. Most stores selling batteries are also required to take back spent batteries. Alkaline batteries contain the reusable materials of zinc and manganese but the retrieval process is a liability. Efforts are made to increase the recycling of alkaline cells from the low 4 percent in to 40 percent in .

In North America, Retriev Technologies, formerly Toxco, and the Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC) collect spent batteries and recycle them. While Retriev has its own recycling facilities, RBRC is in charge of collecting batteries and sending them to recycling organizations. Retriev in Trail, British Columbia, claims to be the only company in the world that recycles large lithium batteries. They receive spent batteries from oil drilling in Nigeria, Indonesia and other places. They also recycle retired lithium batteries from the Minuteman missile silos and tons of Li-ion from war efforts. Other divisions at Retriev recycle nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal-hydride, lead, mercury, alkaline and more.

Europe and Asia are also active in recycling spent batteries. Among other recycling companies, Sony and Sumitomo Metal in Japan and Umicore in Belgium have developed technology to retrieve cobalt and other precious metals from spent lithium ion batteries. (See BU-705a: Battery Recycling as a Business)

Umicore uses an ultra-high temperature (UHT) processes to recycle Li-ion and NiMH batteries. Spent packs are dismantled and melted in an UHT furnace. The derbies are separated into metal alloy containing copper, cobalt and nickel, and slag, a stony waste containing rare earth metals. Slag can be further processed to recover lithium, but producing battery-grade lithium is not yet economical and the slag is used for construction. Methods are being developed to extract lithium for reprocessing into lithium carbonate for Li-ion production. With an anticipated 10-fold growth in the use of Li-ion batteries between and , the reuse of lithium could become economical so the metals end up in battery production again much like lead for lead acid batteries.

Recycling Process

Recycling starts by sorting batteries into chemistries. Collection centers place lead acid, nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal-hydride and lithium ion into designated drums, sacks or boxes. Battery recyclers claim that recycling can be made profitable if a steady stream of batteries, sorted by chemistry, is made available.

The recycling process begins by removing the combustible material, such as plastics and insulation, with a gas-fired thermal oxidizer. Polluting particles created by the burning process are eliminated by the plant&#;s scrubber before release into the atmosphere. This leaves the clean and naked cells with metal content.

The cells are then chopped into small pieces and heated until the metal liquefies. Non-metallic substances are burned off, leaving a black slag on top that a slag arm removes. The alloys settle according to weight and are skimmed off like cream from raw milk while still in liquid form.

Cadmium is relatively light and vaporizes at high temperatures. In a process that appears like a pan of water boiling over, a fan blows the cadmium vapor into a large tube that is cooled with water mist. The vapors condense to produce cadmium that is 99.95 percent pure.

Some recyclers do not separate the metals on site but pour the liquid metals directly into what the industry refers to as &#;pigs&#; (65 pounds, 24kg) or &#;hogs&#; (2,000 pounds, 746kg). Other battery recyclers use nuggets (7 pound, 3.17kg). The pigs, hogs and nuggets are shipped to metal recovery plants where they are used to produce nickel, chromium and iron for stainless steel and other high-end products.

To reduce the possibility of a reactive event during crushing, some recyclers use a liquid solution or freeze lithium-based batteries with liquid nitrogen; however, mixing Li-ion starter batteries with the common lead acid type still remains a problem as a charged Li-ion is far more explosive than lead acid.

Battery recycling is energy intensive. Reports reveal that it takes 6 to 10 times more energy to reclaim metals from some recycled batteries than from mining. The exception is the lead acid battery, from which lead can be extracted easily and reused without elaborate processes. To some extent, nickel from NiMH can also be recovered economically if available in large quantities.

New recycling methods are being developed that retrieve the metals by electrolysis, also knowns as chemical recycling. The process is said to be more cost effective and produces higher yields with less pollutants than traditional smelting. One such alternative to recycle lead acid batteries has been developed by Aqua Metals. This technology has the potential of revolutionizing traditional melting methods. An electrochemical process separates the lead by breaking down metals into nanoscopic sizes particles that are dispersed in water to create a hydro-collodial metal. The process is called AquaRefining. Technical issues are delaying full implementation at this time.

Each country sets its own rules and adds tariffs to the purchase price of a new battery to make recycling feasible. In North America, some recycling plants invoice by weight and the rates vary according to chemistry. While NiMH yields a fairly good return with nickel, the spent NiCd battery is less in demand because of soft cadmium prices. Due to poor metal retrieval value, Li-ion commands a higher recycling fee than most other battery types.

Recycling Li-ion batteries is not yet profitable must be government subsidized. There is an incentive to recover costly cobalt. No recycling technology exists today that is capable of producing pure enough lithium for a second use in batteries. Lithium for batteries is mined; second hand lithium is used for lubricants, glass, ceramics and other applications.

The flat cost to recycle a ton of batteries is $1,000 to $2,000; Europe hopes to achieve a cost per ton of $300. Ideally, this would include transportation, but moving and handling the goods is expected to double the overall cost. To simplify transportation, Europe is setting up several smaller processing plants in strategic geographic locations. This, in part, is due to the Basel Convention that prohibits the export of complete but spent lead acid batteries. As the volume of discarded batteries increases, new technologies are being tried to make recycling profitable without the support of agencies and governments.

CAUTION

Under no circumstances should batteries be incinerated, as fire can cause an explosion. Wear approved gloves when touching the electrolyte. On exposure to skin, flush with water immediately. If eye exposure occurs, flush with water for 15 minutes and consult a physician immediately.

References

[1] Source: Johnston Controls
[2] Schroll, Wolfram.Duesenfeld. n.d. https://www.duesenfeld.com

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